Practice Theories
Direct Human Services by Sarah Bradley
Practice theories explain and predict behavior/problems with guidance
toward intervention. They are different from orienting
theories as they guide practice. Included on this page are:
Behavior Theory - assumes that all behavior
is learned and that problems can be conceptualize in behavioral terms.
Since behavior is learned it can be unlearned. Problems, once translated
into behaviors, can be changed by addressing the antecedents and consequences
that surround the behavior. This change is based on concepts from social
learning theory. Techniques utilized in behavior therapy are positive
and negative reinforcement, modeling, systematic desensitization, flooding,
rehearsal, role-playing, social skills training, token system, and
contingencies.
Gambrill, E.D. (1994). Concepts and methods of behavioral
treatment. in D.K. Granvold (Ed.), Cognitive and behavioral treatment:
methods and applications. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Thomlison, B. & Thomlison, R. (1996). Behavior theory and social work
treatment in F. Turner (Ed.), Social work treatment, (4th ed.). New
York: Free Press.
Crisis Theory -postulates that crises
are a normal part of life that can be anticipated (marriage) or unanticipated
(hurricane). In response to crises individuals strive to maintain their
equilibrium by using familiar coping mechanisms. Problems arise or
crises persist when the precipitating event is meaningful or threatening,
disorganization results, the usual coping mechanisms don't work and/or
when recent events reactivate earlier unresolved crises. The more unresolved
earlier crises the more vulnerable individuals are to being unable
to resolve new crises. People in crisis are open to utilizing new coping
strategies and once successful are more likely to engage in these solutions
in the future. Crisis intervention is a time limited practice technique
used to help individuals and groups in crisis. The goal is to reduce
individual's feelings of distress, helplessness and isolation; activate
social resources; and support effective coping. This is done through
listening, validation, acceptance, normalization, reassurance, education,
advocacy and resource linkages.
Ell, Kathleen (1996). Crisis theory and social work
treatment in F. Turner (Ed.), Social work treatment, (4th ed.).
New York: Free Press.
James, R. & Gilliland, B. (2001). Crisis intervention strategies,
(4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole
Parad, H.J. & Parad, L.G. (1990). Crisis Intervention. Milwaukee:
Families International.
Cognitive Theory - focuses on the individual's
thinking as the core determinants of behavior and affect. There are
reciprocal interactions between cognition, affect, behavior and physiology,
but problems are primarily driven and maintained by cognition. Problems
arise as a result of errors in thinking, irrational thinking or beliefs,
and unconscious cognitive schema which impact how we view the world
and ourselves. Common thinking errors: all or nothing thinking, overgeneralization,
focusing on the negative, minimizing/magnification, personalizing,
disqualifying the positive, perfectionism, and emotional reasoning.
Techniques associated with cognitive theory are: clarifying internal
communication, daily record of dysfunctional thinking, thought blocking
and homework related to clarifying thinking.
Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive theory and emotional
disorders. New York: Inter. Univ. Press
Kuehlwein, K.T. & Rosen, H. (1993). Cognitive therapies in action:
Evolving innovative practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lantz, J. (1996) Cognitive theory and social work treatment in F. Turner
(Ed.), Social work treatment, (4th ed.). New York: Free Press
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories -
These theories emanate from the writing of Sigmund Freud, but have
evolved over the last hundred years. They are developmentally based
theories that explain individuals and their problems in the context
of innate potentials and their interaction with the environment in
early childhood experiences. These interactions result in internal
processes, conscious and unconscious, which impact thinking, affect,
and behavior. Problems are understood as symptoms of underlying issues.
Contemporary psychodynamic theories have evolved into the four psychologies:
drive psychology, ego psychology, object relations, and self psychology.
Comparisons of different lines of development and theoretical concepts
can be seen in the Hierarchical
Human Development Schema. These theories guide differing forms
of psychotherapy as well as explain behavioral, cognitive, affective
and relational aspects of all individuals.
Berzoff, J., Flanagan, L.M., & Hertz, P. (1996).
Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and practice
in contemporary multicultural contexts. Northvale, NJ: Jason
Aronson.
Pine, F. (1990). Drive, ego, object and self: A synthesis for clinical
work. New York; Basic Books.
Mishne, J.M. (1993). The evolution and application of clinical theory:
Perspectives on the four psychologies, New York, Free Press.
Drive Psychology - was Freud's original
theory which focuses on powerful instinctual forces that drive development
and behavior - love, hate, sex, and aggression. These forces can come
into conflict with other parts of the self as well as parts of the
outside world. He proposed a model of psychosexual development with
stages in the development of the sexual and aggressive drives. The
stages were - oral, anal, phallic, oedipal, latency, genital. Over
time this evolved into an understanding that conflict arose between
these instinctual drives (the id) and other parts of the mind (the
ego and the superego) and, when unresolved, resulted in psychopathology.
Berzoff, J. (1996). Drive theory in Berzoff, J., Flanagan,
L.M., & Hertz, P. (Eds.). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic
clinical theory and practice in contemporary multicultural contexts. Northvale,
NJ: Jason Aronson.
Ego Psychology - focuses on the ego as the
structure of study as it mediates individuals' interactions with the
outside environment. The ego is responsible for reality testing, judgement,
affect regulation, managing anxiety, impulse control, defenses, thinking,
object relations, mastery and synthetic functioning. The ego develops
and adapts overtime in response to both internal and external experiences.
Goldstein, E.G. (1995). Ego psychology and social
work practice (2nd ed.) New York: Free Press.
Object Relations - focuses on the nature
of relatedness of the self to itself and to others. There is a belief
that individuals have an internal world of relationships that are unconscious,
but which propel them to interact in ways that replicate these internal
representations.
Greenberg, J.R. & Mitchell, S.A. (1983). Object
relations in psychoanalytic theory. Boston: Harvard Univ. Press.
Self Psychology - focuses on the development
of the self as a cohesive whole. The self exists at birth and develops
in the context of relationships. Central to this theory is the belief
that empathy is at the core to all growth as well as treatment. Empathy
is seen as necessary for successful psychological health as well as
a way of "knowing" in the therapeutic relationship. In addition
to empathy two other concepts are unique to this theory - the concepts
of the tripolar self and selfobjects. Self is seen as actually three
poles - the grandiose self, the idealized parental image, and the twinship
pole. Selfobjects are people or things outside of the self that are
utilized throughout life to provide sustenance for growth. These self
objects provide essential ingredients for growth: mirroring, idealizing
and sense of sameness.
Flanagan L.M. (1996). The Theory of self psychology
in Berzoff, J., Flanagan, L.M., & Hertz, P. (Eds.). Inside out
and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and practice in contemporary
multicultural contexts. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
Cooper, M. & Lesser, J.G. (2002). Self psychology:
a relational psychodynamic model in Clinical social work practice.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Empowerment Theory - addresses the
forces of discrimination and oppression as they impact individuals
and groups. Problems arise as a result of society's failure to adequately
and equally meet the needs of all its members. Empowerment refers to
individual and group's ability to access and control resources and
people. Empowerment requires developing a critical awareness of forces
of discrimination and oppression and engaging in effective action.
These processes in turn will result in a personal sense of power and
self efficacy.
Gutierrez, L. & Cox, E. (1998). Empowerment
in social work practice: A source book. Pacific Grove. CA: Brooks/Cole.
Lee, J. (2000). The empowerment approach to social work practice (2nd
ed.). New York: Columbia U. Press.
Robbins, S.P., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. (1998). Theories of empowerment
in Contemporary human behavior theory. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Family Theories - There are various theories
of family functioning outlined on the Family
Theories page.
Intergenerational Family Systems Theory focuses
on individuals in the context of their multigenerational families and
forces within the family which contribute to the development of unresolved
emotional attachments. These principles explain both family and individual
functioning. Seven key concepts encompass the theory:
- Differentiation of self,
- Emotional Triangles,
- Nuclear family emotional system,
- Family projection process,
- Multigenerational transmission,
- Emotional cutoff, and
- Sibling position.
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New
York: Jason Aronson.
Kerr, M.E. (1981) Family systems theory and therapy. In A.S. Gurman & D.S.
Kniskern (Eds.), Handbook of family therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
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